History of Newspapers In America

The history of the newspaper in America begins in 1619, at roughly the same time as the tradition began in England, and a few decades after the notion of a publicly distributed summary of news began in the Netherlands and Germany. In England, The Weekly Newes, written by Thomas Archer and Nicholas Bourne and published by Nathan Butter (d. 1664), was a collection of news items printed in a quarto format and distributed to their clients, wealthy English landowners who lived in London for 4–5 months out of the year and spent the rest of the time in the country and needed to be kept up to date. First American Newspapers (1619–1780s) John Pory (1572–1636), an English colonist living in the Virginia colony of Jamestown, beat Archer and Bourne by a few years, submitting an account of the activities in the colony—the health of the colonists and their crops—to the English ambassador to the Netherlands, Dudley Carleton (1573–1932). By the 1680s, one-off broadsides were commonly published to correct rumors. The earliest surviving of these was The Present State of the New-English Affairs, published in 1689 by Samuel Green (1614–1702). It included an extract from a letter by the Puritan clergyman Increase Mather (1639–1723) then in Kent, to the governor of the Massachusetts Bay Colony. The first regularly produced paper was Publick Occurrences, Both Forreign and Domestick, first published by Benjamin Harris (1673–1716) in Boston on September 25, 1690. The governor of Massachusetts Bay Colony did not approve of the opinions expressed by Harris and it was quickly shut down. In the late 17th and early 18th centuries, notices of current events or opinions were hand-written and posted in public taverns and local churches, who subscribed to gazettes from Europe, or from other colonies, such as The Plain-Dealer, posted in Matthew Potters Bar in Bridgeton, New Jersey. In churches, the news was read from the pulpit and posted on the church walls. Another common news outlet was the public crier. After Harriss suppression, it would not be until 1704 that Bostons postmaster John Campbell (1653–1728) found himself employing the printing press to publicly publish his news of the day: The Boston News-Letter appeared April 24, 1704. It was published continuously under different names and editors for 72 years, with its last known issue published Feb. 22, 1776. The Partisan Era, 1780s–1830s In the early years of the United States, newspapers tended to have small circulation for several reasons. Printing was slow and tedious, so for technical reasons no one publisher could generate enormous numbers of issues. The price of newspapers tended to exclude many common people. And while Americans tended to be literate, there simply werent the large number of readers that would come later in the century. Despite all that, newspapers were felt to have a profound influence on the early years of the federal government. The main reason was that newspapers were often the organs of political factions, with articles and essays essentially making the cases for political action. Some politicians were known to be connected with specific newspapers. For instance, Alexander Hamilton (1755–1804) was a founder of the New York Post (which still exists today, after changing ownership and direction many times during more than two centuries). In 1783, eight years before Hamilton founded the Post, Noah Webster (1758–1843), who would later publish the first American dictionary, began publishing the first daily newspaper in New York City, The American Minerva. Websters newspaper was essentially an organ of the Federalist Party. The paper only operated for a few years, but it was influential and inspired other newspapers that followed. Through the 1820s the publication of newspapers generally had some political affiliation. The newspaper was the way politicians communicated with constituents and voters. And while the newspapers carried accounts of newsworthy events, the pages were often filled with letters expressing opinions. The highly partisan era of newspapers continued well into the 1820s when campaigns waged by candidates John Quincy Adams, Henry Clay, and Andrew Jackson played out on the pages of newspapers. Vicious attacks, such as in the controversial presidential elections of 1824 and 1828, were carried in newspapers which were essentially controlled by candidates. The Rise of City Newspapers, 1830s–1850s In the 1830s newspapers transformed into publications devoted more to news of current events than outright partisanship. As printing technology allowed faster printing, newspapers could expand beyond the traditional four-page folio. And to fill the newer eight-page newspapers, content expanded beyond letters from travelers and political essays to more reporting (and the hiring of writers whose job was to go about the city and report on the news). A major innovation of the 1830s was simply lowering the price of a newspaper: when most daily newspapers cost a few cents, working people and especially new immigrants tended not to buy them. But an enterprising New York City printer, Benjamin Day, began publishing a newspaper, The Sun, for a penny. Suddenly anyone could afford a newspaper, and reading the paper every morning became a routine in many parts of America. And the newspaper industry got a huge boost from technology when the telegraph began to be used in the mid-1840s. Era of Great Editors, the 1850s By the 1850s the American newspaper industry came to be dominated by legendary editors, who battled for supremacy in New York, including Horace Greeley (1811–1872) of the New-York Tribune, James Gordon Bennett (1795–1872) of the New York Herald, and William Cullen Bryant (1794–1878) of the New York Evening Post. In 1851, an editor who had worked for Greeley, Henry J. Raymond, began publishing the New York Times, which was seen as an upstart without any strong political direction.   The 1850s was a critical decade in American history, and the major cities and many large towns began to boast high-quality newspapers. A rising politician, Abraham Lincoln (1809–1865), recognized the value of newspapers. When he came to New York City to deliver his address at Cooper Union in early 1860, he knew the speech could put him on the road to the White House. And he made sure that his words got into the newspapers, even reportedly visiting the office of the New York Tribune after delivering his speech. The Civil War When the Civil War erupted in 1861, the newspapers, especially in the North, responded quickly. Writers were hired to follow the Union troops, following a precedent set in the Crimean War by a British citizen considered the first war correspondent, William Howard Russell (1820–1907). A staple of Civil War-era newspapers, and perhaps the most vital public service, was the publication of casualty lists. After every major action newspapers would publish many columns listing the soldiers who had been killed or wounded. In one famous instance, the poet Walt Whitman (1818–1892) saw his brothers name on a casualty list published in a New York newspaper following the Battle of Fredericksburg. Whitman hurried to Virginia to find his brother, who turned out to be only slightly wounded. The experience of being in the army camps led Whitman to become a volunteer nurse in Washington, D.C., and to write occasional newspaper dispatches on war news. The Calm Following the Civil War The decades following the Civil War were relatively calm for the newspaper business. The great editors of earlier eras were replaced by editors who tended to be very professional but did not generate the fireworks that earlier newspaper reader had come to expect. The popularity of athletics in the late 1800s meant newspapers began having pages devoted to sports coverage. And the laying of undersea telegraph cables meant that news from very distant places could be seen by newspaper readers with shocking speed. For instance, when the distant volcanic island of Krakatoa exploded in 1883, news traveled by undersea cable to the Asian mainland, then to Europe, and then via transatlantic cable to New York City. Readers of New Yorks newspapers were seeing reports of the massive disaster with a day, and even more detailed reports of the devastation appeared in the following days. The Arrival of the Linotype Ottmar Mergenthaler (1854–1899) was the German-born inventor of the linotype machine, an innovative printing system that revolutionized the newspaper industry in the late 19th century. Before Mergenthalers invention, printers had to set type one character at a time in a laborious and time-consuming process. The linotype, so-called because it set a line of type at once, greatly sped up the printing process, and let daily newspapers make changes more easily. Mergenthalers machine-made multiple editions easier to routinely produce editions of 12 or 16 pages. With extra space available in daily editions, innovative publishers could pack their papers with large amounts of news which previously may have gone unreported. The Great Circulation Wars In the late 1880s, the newspaper business received a jolt when Joseph Pulitzer (1847–1911), who had been publishing a successful newspaper in St. Louis, bought a paper in New York City. Pulitzer suddenly transformed the news business by focusing on news that he thought would appeal to common people. Crime stories and other sensational subjects were the focus of his New York World. And vivid headlines, written by a staff of specialized editors, pulled in readers. Pulitzers newspaper was a great success in New York, and by the mid-1890s he suddenly got a competitor when William Randolph Hearst (1863–1951), who had spent money from his familys mining fortune on a San Francisco newspaper a few years earlier, moved to New York City and bought the New York Journal. A spectacular circulation war broke out between Pulitzer and Hearst. There had been competitive publishers before, of course, but nothing like this. The sensationalism of the competition became known as Yellow Journalism. The high point of Yellow Journalism became the headlines and exaggerated stories which encouraged the American public to support the Spanish-American War. At Centurys End As the 19th century ended, the newspaper business had grown enormously since the days when one-man newspapers printed hundreds, or at most thousands, of issues. Americans became a nation addicted to newspapers, and in the era before broadcast journalism, newspapers were a considerable force in public life. By the end of the 19th century, after a period of slow yet steady growth, the newspaper industry was suddenly energized by the tactics of two dueling editors, Joseph Pulitzer and William Randolph Hearst. The two men, engaging in what became known as Yellow Journalism, fought a circulation war that made newspapers a vital part of everyday American life. As the 20th century dawned, newspapers were read in nearly all American homes, and, without the competition from radio and television, enjoyed a period of great business success. Sources and Further Reading Lee, James Melvin. History of American Journalism. Garden City, NY: Garden City Press, 1923.  Shaaber, Matthias A. The History of the First English Newspaper. Studies in Philology 29.4 (1932): 551-87. Print.Wallace, A. Newspapers and the Making of Modern America: A History. Westport, CT: Greenwood Press, 2005

William Golding s Lord Of The Flies - 1672 Words

The Different Social Cognition of the Similar Stories — Synthesis essay of Lord of the Flies Final Project With the development of British culture, the format of Desert Island Literature has an inevitable connection with the geographical and culture heritage of the development of British history. Generally speaking, the setting of such literature is basically around an isolated island which is far from human society. The characters usually follow a primary lifestyle so that illustrate the courage to face the struggling circumstances. As it known to all, the two significant examples of the Desert Island are Robinson Crusoe by Daniel Defoe in the 18th century and William Golding’s Lord of the Flies in the 20th century. Both two novels†¦show more content†¦Robinson Crusoe, a young man who loves sailing and against his parents’ wish at the beginning of the novel. Despite the fact that experiencing the storm and the taking over of the ship by Salà © pirates, to his later experience on the island, it is a great significance of the humanists who wants to open the antiqua ted social rules throughout the novel. Crusoe’s conflict between his dream and the autocratic family is a symbol of the developing humanistic ideology among British world in the 18th century. To Crusoe, the ocean is a mystery as the humanists feel like seeking the new world from the nature. For the newborn ideology, it seems that Crusoe’s first journey must be put down by several unknown difficulties; however, his strongly belief represents such ideology is being mature over time. On the other hand, another remainder which suggest Crusoe’s humanity is that he is keen on convincing Friday to give up the habit of eating people. When asking Friday his opinion of going back, â€Å" ‘Yes,’ he said, ‘I be much O glad to be at my own nation.’ ‘What would you do there?’ said I. ‘Would you turn wild again, eat men’s flesh again, and be a savage as you were before?’ † Crusoe directly shows his averse of the brutal scene of eating human. After all he chooses to remain his human side. At the same time, in Lord of the Flies, Ralph remains human

The Introduction To The Public Interest Accounting Essay Free Essays

Harmonizing to an online lexicon, Cambridge Business English Dictionary Public Interest can be defined asA A noun used when speaking about peoples rights to cognize the facts about a peculiar state of affairs in general concern ( beginning 1 ) . Furthermore in an accounting position, International Federation of Accountants stated it as †the net benefits derived for, and procedural asperity employed on behalf of, all society in relation to any action, determination or policy † ( beginning 2 ) . It can be concluded that it may be referred to be the chief factor when a determination is being made on behalf of the people in a society ; Sing that it can do a great impact. We will write a custom essay sample on The Introduction To The Public Interest Accounting Essay or any similar topic only for you Order Now Furthermore, IFAC has defined the footings â€Å" Public † and â€Å" Interest † individually to clear up the extent of their duty towards the users. As IFAC is a world-wide organisation that can impact a broad scope of people, it described the public financially with â€Å" persons and groups sharing a market place for goods and services † , and non-financially with those that portion a common purpose such as fulfilling life care. This consists of investors, stakeholders, clients and Sellerss, and fundamentally all of the occupants. As for the populace ‘s involvement has been defined as â€Å" all things valued by persons and by society † ( source3 ) . It can be briefed as things that people deserve to acquire and wish to achieve. It is known that there are a batch of benefits that a society demand such as a good life status includes having a wellness attention and instruction, holding political freedom, and practically efficient fiscal markets. Mea nwhile, IFAC is considered to profit the populace in accomplishing their involvements that are related to fiscal affairs and available scarce resources, which comprises minimising economic hazards in fiscal markets and establishments, bring forthing sufficient, helpful and comprehendible fiscal and non-financial studies and really about similar that aid all interested parties in comparing in order to apportion their resources, quality scrutinizing on every degree in an organisation, sing that authorities ‘s and public sectors ‘ information and actions are crystalline to citizens, a well-structured corporate administrations and ethical directors, and excellence and wisely direction of natural resources that can spread out for farther coevalss ‘ consume ( beginning 4 ) . Current regulative environment The Financial Reporting Council is an independent regulator which has been established to guarantee and develop the quality of corporate administration and coverage in the UK. It comprises of six runing organic structures, the Auditing Practices Board, the Board for Actuarial Standards, the Professional Oversight Board, the Accounting Standards Board and the Accountancy Investigation and Discipline Board, the Financial Reporting Review Panel ( beginning 6 ) . IFAC aims for a sustainable successful fiscal environment to promote shareholders to put efficaciously. They take into consideration the actions of professional accounting organic structures and actuarial profession and act independently by training them in raised instances that concerns public involvement. They assist in bettering the efficiency of audit quality and engage in the treatment for future audit market competency. Likewise, they impose criterions and codifications for comptrollers, companies and hearers. ( Source 5 ) Sarbanes Oxley Act of 2002 introduced in response to the major fiscal crisis such as Enron to protect the investors ‘ assurance in the fiscal market, which had been corrupted and caused a batch of losingss. ( Source 9 ) It concentrates on bettering the stability and truth revelation of fiscal statements. Basically, SOX emphasised the duty of the truthfulness of published fiscal statement on managers, and established new punishments for illegal behaviors. Sing scrutinizing subdivision, they have been concerned intensely on effectual internal control on an organisation, which can be used as a verification about the accurateness fiscal statements and figures generated. And an internal control study should be written by the managers, as a back uping papers for their assurance of the truthiness and equity of the company ‘s fiscal place. And an auditing house should take part on guaranting the adequateness of the internal controls by inspecting the company ‘s overall tech niques and policies. ( Source 8 ) . The International Federation of Accountants is a world-wide establishment which has been functioning the public involvement by beef uping the communicating of fiscal information about an entity to the users. In order to carry through strengthen, IFAC assure that international criterions are have been followed and implemented decently by accountant professions, and they can pull off to accomplish the confidence by steering them. The international criterions which IFAC support are really valuable criterions that have a great impact of practically keeping the full economic system. And IFAC is back uping four independent standard-setting boards which are International audit and confidence criterions Board ( IAASB ) , International accounting instruction criterions Board ( IaesB ) , The IAESB sets International Education Standards ( IESs ) , International moralss criterions Board for comptrollers ( IESBA ) and International Public sector accounting criterions Board ( IPSASB ) . Pointedly, IFAC stands up for the populace and talk out for them in instances, related to accounting and scrutinizing professionals, which are in public ‘s involvement. ( source10 ) The Public Interest Oversight Board is a planetary organisation created to detect and guarantee that the standard-setting boards, under the IFAC that are in the portion of A audit and moralss, instruction, and confidence, are concentrating on public involvement. PIOB had improved the quality of fiscal coverage through promoting audit profession to pattern with more transparence and dependability. Particularly after the tremendous fiscal prostrations of cardinal great companies, such as WorldCom, that weakened the public trust on the truthiness, efficiency and independence of hearers ‘ sentiment. Thus, an independent organic structure that observes the audits sentiment and sets criterions is needed for investors to do accurate determinations, increase their trust and ingurgitate them to put, and therefore the market will boom. Another advantage of holding an international organic structure guard international criterions it will assist in comparing public presentations of world-w ide houses easy. ( Source 11 ) Audit quality Harmonizing to Titman and Trueman, audit quality is a term describes the rightness and dependability of information provided by hearers to users, In other words, the capableness of hearers in observing misleading or inaccurate information in fiscal statements ( beginning 12 ) . However, IAASB states that audit quality can non be defined exactly, it changes from which position you are looking at it. In investor position, audit quality is measured by hearer ‘s repute, coverage and outlooks from their work. The better repute the higher quality is assumed in audit. In audit commission member position, the quality of audit is influenced by the quality grade of the hearer, accomplishments and experiences, the audit procedure, which method and groundss were used, and hearer ‘s interactions with others, if in a manner whether it affects his independence or does non. ( Source 13 ) The International Standards on Auditing ( ISAs ) takes a cardinal function in take parting in audit quality by puting a globally accepted benchmark. In add-on, their criterions have been improved with the aid of IAASB, which is independently carefully supervised by PIOB. ( Source 13 ) The demand of audit quality is raised from asymmetric information and struggle of involvements ( beginning 12 ) . It can be conducted that audit quality is demanded because a batch of shareholders had worthless investings for the ground that false information were recommended to them or unjust audit studies were issued. Furthermore, some hearers loss the independence, which is a primary rule for an hearer, by working for a house by supplying dishonorable sentiment merely to maintain their occupation or they have been bribed. In add-on, it can be determined from a survey that the higher audit quality consequences a higher grade of investor ‘s capableness to anticipate future net incomes ( beginning 12 ) . Audit study Audit study should be attached with a house ‘s one-year fiscal statements to province their sentiment of the truthiness and equity, or non, of the fiscal figures ( beginning 14 ) . It could be issued by internal hearer or external hearer. The study can impact a house ‘s stakeholders, loaners and stockholders. If it was unqualified study, so more investors will be attracted to the house, stockholders ‘ assurance in directors will increase, and it will fulfill their loaners, due to enhanced public presentation, by vouching the house ‘s refund their money. Qualified sentiment could be a ground of except for, disclaimer of sentiment or inauspicious sentiment. Except for sentiment is used when there is a restriction of range, an hearer does non hold adequate grounds that can assist him in guaranting a affair. Disclaimer of sentiment is when a director refuses to give the hearer the authorization to garner information or he does non take part with him, and when an h earer misses an chance that is material to the topic being audited. And in conclusion, inauspicious sentiment is the worst because it indicates that a company is non following with the criterions, fiscal statements contain deceptive information, or affect important uncertainnesss ( source14 ) . In order to bring forth quality audit reports the ICAEW Audit and Assurance abled to form the Audit Quality Forum in 2004. Since the addition in complexness of concern environment and the important impacts of several fiscal failures that forced the universe into recessions, they are seeking to strength the relationship and communicating between directors and managers and all participates with more transparence. Therefore, assurance will increase due to the clear uping every procedure and determination devising, which eventually will ensue with extremely dependable studies. ( Source 15 ) Till today the hearer ‘s study are under alterations in order to run into the user ‘s demand. There are two chief defects that should be extinguish or minimise in coverage, which are the outlook spread and the information spread. The outlook spread occurs when user ‘s outlook from hearer ‘s information provided in a study differs from the existent audit itself. For illustration, hearers ‘ materiality term is considered otherwise than the construct understood by the user. Besides, the audit study is conducted with general nonspecific linguistic communication that does n’t demo the existent process of scrutinizing, nonsubjective investigated or to which extent the audit covers. As for the information spread â€Å" the being of a spread between the information they [ users ] believe is needed to do informed investing and fiducial determinations, and what is available to them through the entity ‘s audited fiscal statements or other publically a vailable information † ( Source 16 ) . In other words, investors think that they can establish their determination on audited fiscal statement, which reflect the organisation ‘s overall public presentation and fiscal place. However, in existent pattern there are information in an entity that are non related to scrutinize, somehow it is much utile for efficient fiscal analysing and determination devising. Therefore, in an entity fiscal study, directors should advert clearly important fiscal coverage hazard and how they are being stated, on the other side, hearers should be more crystalline about the audit carried and particularly countries concern audit hazards. Decision How to cite The Introduction To The Public Interest Accounting Essay, Essay examples